Basic Considerations
The questionnaire is a sophisticated instrument that helps us reveal complex social and social-psychological phenomena.
When designing the questionnaire, it is imperative to take into account psychological, semantic, and sociolinguistic factors.
It is also necessary to explore the so-called “context-effects”, as well as the semantic nuances of the words and expressions we use to articulate our questions.
Introductory Questions
As Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann used to say, the questionnaire must have good manners. It is important to use “Ice-breaking” questions to help create a positive connection with the interviewee. These questions may be irrelevant for the actual research.
Always avoid starting questions that may be answered with “no” by most respondents.
Examples of ice-breaking question:
There are people who are more energetic early in the morning. Other people perform better in the evening. Which group do you belong to?
- Early in the morning
- Rather in the evening
- Undecided
Are you, in general, an optimistic or pessimistic person?
- Optimistic
- Pessimistic
- I can’t tell
Distracting questions
Respondents feel the need to offer a coherent image of themselves. They also tend to give answers they think may please the interviewer.
When we presume that certain questions can influence each other, we need to introduce other questions that might break the mental connection.
Graphic elements are ideal to distract the attention.
Context Effects
Recency Effect
Interviewees tend to favor the last alternative given to them, independently of the contents.
The next example shows you the variation of the answers depending on the the order those answers where presented.
In a small town, the municipal council plans to allow the construction of a new factory. However, the majority of the population is against it. The judge decided that the population couldn’t do anything to prevent the construction. In a public event, two speakers discuss the issue. Which of the opinions would you agree with?
| 1 | 2 | |
| The municipal council was democratically elected by the citizens of the town and has the right to go ahead with the construction of the factory. | 46% | 59% |
| The municipal council should respect the will of population and stop the building project of the factory. | 26% | 35% |
Primacy Effect
The primacy effect is exactly the opposite and occurs seldom. In this case, the first alternative is favored.
That happens mostly when the question and the answer alternatives are short.
The longer questions and answer alternatives, the more probable the recency effect.
Disadvantage of the middle alternative
In questions with 3 answer alternative, the middle position, independently of contents is frequently ignored.
Do you think that the government should make easier for married couples to get divorced? Or more difficult? Or should the law remain the same?
| easier | 23% |
| more difficult | 36% |
| the same | 41% |
| easier | 23% |
| the same | 29% |
| More difficult | 46% |
Indirect Questions
There are delicate topics people don’t feel confortable discussing, such as …
- hygiene,
- political correctness,
- income,
- religious questions,
- embarrassing situations,
- fear of isolation,
- …
In that case is recommendable to state the question you want to ask indirectly.
Equality versus Performance
Now I’d like to tell you a story: two secretaries are the same age and do practically the same work. Yet, one of them earns $100 more a month. The second secretary goes to her boss to complain about the situation. The boss tells her that the other one is more reliable and work faster than she. Do you think it is fair that one secretary earns more than the other? Or do you think it is unfair?
- Fair
- Unfair
- Undecided
| fair | 66% |
| unfair | 24% |
| undecided | 10% |
To identify people who pay special attention to tidiness and aesthetics
Have you recently noticed that someone was wearing dirty shoes? Or are you not aware of it?
- Yes, I noticed
- No, I am not aware
| Yes, I noticed | 41% |
| No, I am not aware | 59% |
Threat of Isolation
I’d like to know your opinion about following case. Recently, in a public forum about nuclear energy in Germany held at the Gutenberg-University, one of the speakers was hooted very badly by the audience. Do you think that this speaker was in favor of or against nuclear energy?
| In favor | 62% |
| against | 15% |
| Impossible to say | 23% |
Social desirability
There are people who believe that it is damaging for hair and skin to wash their hair too often. Could you please tell me when did you wash your hair for the last time?
| Yesterday | 19% |
| The day before yesterday | 33% |
| A couple of days before | 39% |
| A couple of weeks before | 8% |
| I never wash my Hair | 1% |
Semantic Equivalents
Sometimes, expressions that have the exactly same meaning may be perceived differently by our audience, which may distort the interpretation of our outcomes.
Examples:
Recently it has been stated that every fourth German has too little self-confidence. Does this proportion seem like much to you, or not that much?
In parallel surveys, this question was formulated alternatively:
… one-fourth of all Germans …
… one out of four Germans
… approximately 25% of all Germans
| Every fourth | One-fourth | One out of four | 25% | |
| much | 49% | 45% | 38% | 34% |
| Not that much | 15% | 47% | 53% | 54% |
| undecided | 11% | 8% | 9% | 12% |
Do you think that the U.S. should prohibit the demonstrations against democracy?
Do you think that the U.S. should not allow demonstrations against democracy?
| prohibit | not allow | |
| prohibit / not allow | 21% | 48% |
| not prohibit / allow | 79% | 52% |